Historical Archeology in New Hampshire

by David R. Starbuck

Abstract

Historical archeology is a very young field in New Hampshire, and professional techniques did not arrive in the state until the late 1960s, well after many other parts of the country. However, a large number of very significant historical sites have survived, permitting a great deal of research at urban, rural, industrial, and even maritime and military sites in the southern half of the state. Sometimes the results of this research have helped to challenge pre-existing assumptions about the state's history, but in many cases archeology has simply helped to bring a bit more visibility to some of this state's less-well-known citizens and events. This article summarizes some of the historical archeology projects that have taken place in New Hampshire over the past 25 years and suggests future directions that research might take.

Introduction

While excavations at historic sites in the United States go back to at least the mid-1800s, historical archeology did not crystalize as a serious field in this country until the 1930s, when the National Park Service commenced excavations at the early English village of Jamestown, Virginia (Cotter 1958). National Park Service archeologists subsequently dug at many historic sitestypically the homes of famous people or the sites of famous eventsin order to gather the background information necessary to do site reconstruction and interpretation for the general public. Much of this early data-gathering was rather sloppily done, and much went unpublished, but it provided the training for the "first generation" of historical archeologists. What eventually followed were the first college-level courses in historical archeology, commencing at the University of Pennsylvania in 1960 (Cotter 1977).

Since that time, growing numbers of historical archeologists have been employed by universities, by state and federal agencies, by environmental consulting firms, and by historic museum villages (such as Colonial Williamsburg in Virginia and Plimouth Plantation and Old Sturbridge Village in Massachusetts). Much of this work has been of a purely descriptive nature, but fortunately at least some historical archeologists in the 1990s have succeeded in making the transition from "filling in the gaps" to: a) using archeology as a cross-check upon the historical record, b) attempting to answer questions about human behaviorwhether economic, political or social, and c) using arch-eology and material culture to identify reoccurring patterns which will identify the values and ideologies of past American culture.

New Hampshire cannot lay claim to being a pioneer in the field of historical archeology because there were few systematic efforts to research historic archeological sites in the state until the late 1960s, and even subsequent regional syntheses have paid scant attention to New Hampshire (e.g., Huey 1986, Brown 1978). However, New Hampshire has experienced a fluorescence in historical archeology since the late 1970s as archeological research has focused upon the remains of the first European coastal fishing settlements; urban settlements such as Strawbery Banke in Portsmouth; the sites of hill farms in the White Mountains; governors' mansions, early factories, potters' shops, and even the site of a large communal society. Also, during this same period there has been much contract-funded historical archeology in New Hampshire, with final reports on this work filed at the Division of Historical Resources in Concord.

Excellent research opportunities have existed because abundant physical remains have survived from New Hampshire's historic past, and because many institutionsespecially the New Hampshire Division of Historical Resourceshave helped to support this research. However, at a time when archeological resources are being threatened throughout the United States, it is clearly essential to strike an appropriate balance between the needs of historic preservation and pure >research. Historic preservation does not mean leaving everything in the groundwhere it will continue to deteriorate and become harder to interpretany more than pure research can be used as an excuse for completely digging and thereby destroying the sites which have been protected until now.

This article will explore the chronological development of historical archeology in the State of New Hampshire, giving examples of many of the types of sites that have been studied and published upon (see Table 1 and Figure 1). Those sites which have been dug by archeologists but have not been adequately publishedor which have been described only in contract-funded reports, the so-called "gray literature" of archeologywill necessarily be mentioned only in passing. It is a sad fact that most sites which have been dug by professionals in New Hampshire have not been published; and there is really very little difference between the bottle-collector, the school teacher who takes classes out to dig on weekends, or the "professional" who does not publish. In all cases archeological sites have been sacrificed unnecessarily if a complete site report is not published and widely circulated after every excavation.

The Development of Historical Archeology in New Hampshire

It may be claimed, somewhat facetiously, that the earliest historic site excavations in New Hampshire were those conducted by the Civilian Conservation Corps at the Governor John Wentworth plantation in Wolfeboro in 1934-1935, as they dug inside the mansion cellar hole of New Hampshire's last colonial governor (Starbuck 1989). However, some of the first work conducted by professionals visiting the state took place at the controversial site of Mystery Hill ("America's Stonehenge") in North Salem, where scholars attempted to establish the origin of the stone chambers or "beehives" at the site. Beginning in 1945, Junius Bird dug a few pits at that site, followed in 1955 by Gary Vescelius (1955) who conducted a six-week excavation and recovered some 8,000 artifacts that he attributed to a 19th-century origin. Many other excavations have occurred there since then. Elsewhere, Howard Sargent dug in about 1960 at the 1785 cellarhole of Hugh Grimes, the earliest resident in Hancock.

This was followed by the efforts of members of the New Hampshire Archeological Society in 1964 to salvage remains at the site of a waterway named "Puddle Dock" in Portsmouth, the first of many efforts to document urban development in that city. The Pitt Tavern in Portsmouth also saw the excavation of a privy in 1964 or 1965 (Pinello and Dupre 1993:10); and soon after, in 1966, the "pick and shovel archeologist," Roland Robbins, continued excavations at Puddle Dock where he found timbers from an early wharf. However, it was not until 1968 and 1969 that Daniel Ingersolla graduate student at Harvard Universityconducted an extensive excavation at Puddle Dock, thus beginning the first professional archeology in that city (Ingersoll 1971a, 1971b).

The 1970s saw a tremendous growth in historical archeology in New Hampshire, beginning with Boston University's excavation at the New England Glassworks site in Temple which lasted from 1975-1978. Not only was this the largest excavation ever conducted at an industrial site in New Hampshirea 1780-1782 glass factorybut it was one of the few times that a small 18th-century factory village has ever been excavated. Much of the glasshouse was exposed (Figure 2 and Plate 1)which measured 69.5 by 67.6 feetalong with the remains of three large workers' dwellings (Plate 2), a lean-to and various dumps. Over 200,000 glass fragments were recovered which were used to conduct studies into the degree of innovation that was occurring in this early New Hampshire industry (see Starbuck 1978a, 1978b, 1983a, 1983b, 1984b, 1986a).

Simultaneously, Steven Pendery was excavating the Marshall-Toogood Pottery site at Strawbery Banke from 1975-1978 (Pendery 1978, 1981, 1984, 1985; DeCorse 1978-1979). He also excavated in the Market Square area in 1976, and in the yards around several historic houses, including the Peacock House in 1975, the Cotton House in 1976, and the Jefferson House, Jones House, and Yeaton-Winn House in 1978. Pendery's work at the Marshall-Toogood site (1736-1749) was easily the most significant because it was the first professional excavation of any potter's site in New England, and his "Feature 20" was a waster dump associated with a possible kiln site. ("Wasters" were the poorly fired pottery pieces which had to be discarded.) In addition to numerous wasters (which included quite a few vessels from decorated tablewares), Pendery found an earth surface with impressions that suggested where wooden racks may have been set to support redware while it dried (Pendery 1981). Pendery also began digging in 1980 at the Bennett-Dodge Pottery site (1789-1864) in the North End of Portsmouth. Winthrop Bennett had begun a redware pottery shop there in 1789, and then Joseph Dodge purchased the shop in 1796. Either Dodge or his two sons operated the shop until 1864, after which pottery was no longer produced in Portsmouth (Pendery 1985). Pendery's excavation at the Bennett-Dodge site was on a much smaller scale than at the Marshall-Toogood site, but taken together these sites have provided a wealth of information about 18th and 19th-century pottery production in Portsmouth.

Elsewhere at this time, Alaric Faulkner was excavating the site of a brickyard in Nelson; Billee Hoornbeek was digging the Old Parsonage site in Newington in 1978 and 1979; and Robert Ewing led efforts in 1979 and 1980 to discover the sites of smallpox pesthouses in Exeter and at the Newmarket Town Farm (Anonymous 1980-1981). (Neither project revealed conclusive evidence for a pesthouse building.) As part of a cultural resources management project, Pamela Cressey dug at the site of the proposed "Bicentennial Square" in Concord in 1977, and in one of the very few instances where "contract" work has been published in New Hampshire, she argued that she had found evidence for an early marketplace underneath a modern parking lot (Bolian and Cressey 1978). Ironically, excavations by others [Plate 3] subsequently demonstrated that everything she had just found was recent 1950s trash from the Concord City dump (see Starbuck 1977).

The 1970s also saw the beginning of a massive survey effort to document the Shaker Village located in Canterbury. Boston Universityand, subsequently, the University of New Hampshireconducted archival research, mapped, and then selectively excavated at the site of New Hampshire's largest communal society, producing an extensive archive of measured drawings, photographs, and site reports which represent the most thorough body of documentation for any communal society in the United States. While the intensive field work in Canterbury lasted just three seasons (1978, 1979, 1980), the drafting of maps and preparation of written reports continued for much of the 1980s. Most of the work in Canterbury consisted of surface-recording and archival research; and the only digging was in crawl spaces underneath buildings, in selected features within the man-made mill system (Plates 4-5), and at the West Family (where some of the cellar holes were on the verge of being destroyedsee Figure 3). This provides an excellent example of a community where there was little immediate need for excavation because so much could be >documented through other means (see Starbuck and Smith 1979; Starbuck 1980, 1981, 1984a, 1986b, 1988a, 1990a, 1990b).

In 1979 the Jones House Archaeology Center opened at Strawbery Banke Museum, and since that time a public laboratory and exhibits have helped to share archeological results with the visiting public. The 1980s then saw a very considerable increase in archeological activity throughout the city of Portsmouth. Faith Harrington dug at the Follett site (Puddle Dock) in 1981-1982 (Harrington 1983a, 1983b) and continued work in the yards around the Sherburne House in 1983-1984 (where Steven Pendery had first worked in 1977see Harrington [1989]). Gray Graffam dug at the Rider-Wood House in 1981. In Portsmouth's North End, urban renewal had removed many buildings between 1969 and 1971, and as a prelude to new construction, the large Deer Street Projectbegun in 1981 under Steven Penderywas directed by Aileen Agnew from late 1981 through 1986. A general survey of 10 acres was followed by Data Recovery Phase III excavations at the Hart-Shortridge houselot in 1981 and 1982 (Edwards, Pendery, and Agnew 1988), along with the Richard Shortridge, Richard Hart and Deer Tavern sites. Extremely rich privy features, containing much glass and ceramics, made this an exceptionally worthwhile project (Agnew 1985, 1988).

While urban archeology was expanding in the 1980s in New Hampshire, so was work at rural sites, beginning with an extremely useful study of farmsteads conducted by John Wilson in southwestern New Hampshire in 1979. In a cultural resources survey of Surrywhich involved no excavationsWilson tackled the central question of "significance," using his survey of farmsteads as a springboard for asking "what makes farms significant?" (Wilson 1990).

This was followed by excavations by David Starbuck in 1980 at the Jones Farm (the New Hampshire Farm Museum) in Milton (see Plate 6). Soon afterwards, Richard Waldbauer initiated the "Hill Farm Project" in order to study clusters of hill farms in the White Mountain National Forest of New Hampshire and Maine (Waldbauer 1985, 1986). Waldbauer's project involved a small amount of digging in 1983 at 19th-century hill farms (through the auspices of Plymouth State College and the USDA Forest Service), but it was chiefly an historical and spatial analysis of "the regional agricultural economy of nineteenth-century farms located at the highest elevations in the Northeast" (Waldbauer 1985:67-68). Waldbauer interpreted a sample of 130 farm sites, noting that hill farms must not be viewed as isolated units but as clusters of farms that were interdependent within a regional economy. Also in 1983, a project with both rural and industrial aspects was conducted by Faith Harrington, Fred Bissen and Keene State College in Pisgah State Park in Winchester. This had been the site of a lumbering community (the "Broad Brook Steam Lumber Mills") from the 1830s to the 1930s, and what had survived were dams, ponds, ditches and the cellar holes of dwellings. Harrington dug at the site of a sawmill, in the vicinity of a blacksmith shop, and next to a mid-19th century cellar hole (Harrington 1984).

During the following summer, 1984, Faith Harrington and Keene State College also dug at the possible site of Fort No. 4 (ca. 1743-1763) in Charlestown on the Connecticut River. Howard Sargent had dug there years earlier, in 1957 and 1958, and found postholes and a trench that he believed might be from the original fort. (Fort No. 4 had been erected to provide English settlers with protection from the French and Indians.) Harrington, assisted by Paula Zitzler, wanted to confirm Sargent's findings and did, in fact, find artifacts from the correct time period. However, no structural remains of the fort were discovered, and so this site continues to be enigmatic (Harrington 1985a).

During this same period, a much more successful fort excavation was conducted in central New Hampshire in the town of Boscawen, close to where the Contoocook River flows into the Merrimack River. The proprietors of Boscawen had voted in 1739 to build a log fort 100 feet square, but historical records had been vague as to whether the fort was ever actually built. This prompted a preliminary survey by David Starbuck in 1982, followed by a sizeable excavation directed by Mary Dupre in the summers of 1983, 1984 and 1985. While no traces of a palisade wall were discovered, a dense scatter of rocks, bricks and clayaccompanied by many early 18th-century artifactsrevealed that these were the remains of a building from the desired time period (Dupre 1985a). Among Dupre's more unusual findsdiscovered in 1985 within the dense scatter of rubblewas the complete skeleton of a dog. (There were no associated artifacts to permit any dating of this findsee Plate 7.)

Central New Hampshire saw additional historical excavations in the early 1980s, and one of the largest of these was at the site of a redware potter in the Millville District of Concord. Ample supplies of clay suitable for making pottery had long been procured from clay beds in this area, and the third potter to manage one of the shops in this district was Joseph Hazeltine,whooccupied a pot shop and built kilns just south of Hopkinton Road. Hazeltinewho was in operation from pre-1842 to 1880 used the fourwheels in his shop to produce a variety of wares, including lard pots, bean pots, jugs, chamberpots, milkpans, porringers, cider or ale mugs, and possibly flowerpots (see Plate 8). Excavations were conducted there by David Starbuck and Mary Dupre from 1982 to 1984, on both sides of Hopkinton Road, and revealed extensive "waster" dumps, the foundations of two kiln houses (Plate 9), and probably one foundation wall from the pot shop (see Starbuck and Dupre 1985a, 1985b; Dupre 1985b). The project completely exposed an oval kiln in one kiln house ("Kiln House I") and partially exposed a square or rectangular kiln in a second house ("Kiln House II") (see Figure 4). While no pottery-making tools were found, the great quantities of wasters, kiln furniture (Plate 10), and products recovered provided much useful information about some of the technological problems dealt with in this family-based industry.

Upon completion of the work at the Hazeltine Pottery site, Starbuck, Dupre, and Gary Hume next undertook the excavation of Governor John Wentworth's Plantation in Wolfeboro. Under the sponsorship of Plymouth State College, New Hampshire Parks and Recreation, and the Division of Historical Resources, four seasons of excavation were devoted to what had been the summer home of New Hampshire's last colonial governor (see Starbuck 1988b, 1988c, 1989). Occupied by John Wentworth between 1768 and 1775, the Wentworth estate has affectionately sometimes been termed "America's Oldest Summer Place," and the 1985-1988 project focused upon what had been the core of his 3,000-acre estate. While only cellar holes are left where buildings once stood, Wentworth's mansion had measured 100 feet by 40 feetthe largest residence in New Hampshire on the eve of the Revolution. Excavations into the cellar of the mansion revealed a great deal of debris from when the mansion burned in 1820 (Plate 11), but the most significant results were obtained from excavations into some of the outbuildings on this grand estatestables, a dairy, a large cistern and other outbuildings (Plates 12-13). No other excavation in northern New England has ever produced as much evidence for the layout of an 18th-century formal estate.

Another large and long-term project began in 1986 when Faith Harrington initiated work on the Isles of Shoals, nine rocky islands that are located about eight miles off the coast of present-day New Hampshire and Maine. In the 17th century there was a very active cod fishery there, and Harrington has sought to show "its transition from a temporary fishing station to a permanent settlement" (Harrington 1992:249). This projectsponsored by EARTHWATCH, the University of Southern Maine, and othersis quite unique in that no other archeologist has systematically focused on understanding early fishing sites and changing settlement practices just off the coast of New Hampshire (also see Harrington 1985b, 1985c; Harrington and Kenyon 1987; Kelso and Harrington 1989).

Now that New Hampshire historical archeology has moved into the 1990s, excavations at urban sites in Portsmouth have continued unabated. In the late 1980s, this prompted Strawbery Banke Museum to hire both Martha Pinello and Mary Dupre as permanent staff, and they have successfully maintained a very active program of field work and analysis since that time (see Pinello 1989). Their work at the Rider-Wood House in 1989 and 1990, at the Wheelwright House in 1990 and 1991, at the Warner House in 1993, and elsewhere in Portsmouth (e.g., at the Wentworth-Coolidge Mansion in 1992) has been part of a concerted effort by Strawbery Banke Museum to keep up with the rapid pace of construction and the need for interpretation in Portsmouth. Much of this work is still so recent that it has not yet been published, although Kathy Wheeler has recently completed her dissertation (1992) on research at the Rider-Wood, Wheelwright, and Follett sites. Elsewhere in the state, Plymouth State College has run a successful series of summer field programs in central New Hampshire over the past several years, first under the direction of Duncan Wilkie and more recently under Katherine Donahue. Their current research has graduate students in Plymouth's Heritage Studies Program documenting logging camps in the White Mountains in conjunction with the USDA Forest Service. While this is the only graduate program in New Hampshire actively dealing with historic sites, it is nevertheless a good beginning, and hopefully more colleges in the state will follow their example.

Discussion

New Hampshire historical archeology has developed a great deal in 25 years, yet many categories of sites and many significant topics have not yet been addressed. For example, other than the study of the Shakers in Canterbury, there really has been no archeological study of any minority group in the state; women's activities are poorly represented in archeological studies; there have been almost no comparisons of "coastal" versus "interior" settlement patterns; there have been few efforts to locate early posthole houses and other forms of poorly-known architecture that were holdovers from English medieval styles; and very little has been done with the sites of farms and early industries. The high rate of survival for many types of sites in New Hampshire means that all of these research areas can (and should) ultimately be addressed. However, at the present time the only broad categories of sites that are well represented in the archeological literature for New Hampshire are urban sites (Portsmouth) and potters' shops.

All the same, much of the work conducted at Strawbery Banke, at the Isles of Shoals, and at Canterbury Shaker Village has achieved a nationwide audience, and New Hampshire historical archeology is increasingly well-known beyond the borders of the state. While research must continue on sites and topics that help to reveal the "essential character" of New Hampshireits customs and its valuessome projects will also hopefully reveal patterning in human behavior that will be of interest to scholars working in other regions too.

Problem-oriented archeology, the processualism of the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, Stanley South's search for "patterning" in the archeological record (South 1977), Ivor Noel Hume's heavily empirical approach (Noel Hume 1969, 1970), and James Deetz's studies of how English/European ideology adapted to the New World (1968, 1974, 1977) all have relevance and can provide useful models (and tools) for scholars studying historic sites in New Hampshire.

Acknowledgments

I wish to thank Alex Munton (1991), Mary Dupre and Martha Pinello for providing me with access to previously unpublished information on the excavations in Portsmouth. I also wish to acknowledge that many of the projects described in this article were carried out under the auspices of the New Hampshire Division of Historical Resources (the State Historic Preservation Office) and the State Cooperative Regional Archaeology Plan (now the State Conservation and Rescue Archaeology Program). Without funding and equipment from that office, many of these projects would not have been possible. It must also be noted that most of the work conducted at these sites was performed by students and volunteers, and these hundreds of participants deserve a great deal of credit for their efforts to learn more about New Hampshire's historical sites. Toni Howe was one of the foremost of these, taking part on many projectsfirst as a volunteer digger and then as a supervisorand she helped to educate many new students in the techniques of digging historical sites.

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